Add section 2 mit calculus single variable

content/AI&DATA/MathsForML/Calculus.md

@@ -26,3 +26,5 @@ The Derivative of |x|
 
 - [Problem (PDF)](https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-01sc-single-variable-calculus-fall-2010/resources/mit18_01scf10_ex02prb/)
 - [Solution (PDF)](https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/18-01sc-single-variable-calculus-fall-2010/resources/mit18_01scf10_ex02sol/)
+
+

content/AI&DATA/MathsForML/Coursera Maths for ML.md

@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+
+---
+
+## Linear Regression Explanation: Weights Vector and Feature Matrix
+
+### 1. How the Weights Vector Multiplies with the Feature Matrix
+
+In linear regression, we model the relationship between input features and the target output as a linear combination of the input features. The formula for linear regression is:
+
+$$
+\mathbf{y} = \mathbf{X} \mathbf{w} + \mathbf{b}
+$$
+
+where:
+- **\(\mathbf{y}\)** is the vector of predicted outputs.
+- **\(\mathbf{X}\)** is the feature matrix, where each row represents a data point and each column represents a feature. If there are \(n\) data points and \(p\) features, then \(\mathbf{X}\) has a shape of \(n \times p\).
+- **\(\mathbf{w}\)** is the weights vector (also called the coefficient vector), which has a size of \(p \times 1\). Each weight corresponds to the importance or contribution of a specific feature.
+- **\(\mathbf{b}\)** is the bias term, which shifts the output up or down.
+
+#### Explanation of \(\mathbf{X} \mathbf{w}\)
+
+1. **Matrix-vector multiplication**: In \(\mathbf{X} \mathbf{w}\), each row of \(\mathbf{X}\) (a single data point) is multiplied by the weights vector \(\mathbf{w}\) to produce a prediction for that data point.
+2. **Output**: The result \(\mathbf{X} \mathbf{w}\) yields an \(n \times 1\) vector of predictions for all \(n\) data points. The bias term \(\mathbf{b}\) is added to each element in this vector to produce the final prediction vector.
+
+---
+
+### 2. The Weights Vector \(\mathbf{w}\)
+
+The weights vector, typically denoted as **\(\mathbf{w}\)**, is a column vector that holds the coefficients assigned to each feature in linear regression. It defines the influence or contribution of each feature to the output prediction.
+
+For a model with \(p\) features, the weights vector **\(\mathbf{w}\)** is of size \(p \times 1\) and can be represented as:
+
+$$
+\mathbf{w} = \begin{bmatrix} w_1 \\ w_2 \\ \vdots \\ w_p \end{bmatrix}
+$$
+
+where each element \(w_i\) in the weights vector corresponds to the coefficient for feature \(x_i\):
+- \(w_1\) is the weight for the first feature.
+- \(w_2\) is the weight for the second feature.
+- ...
+- \(w_p\) is the weight for the \(p\)-th feature.
+
+For example, if the model has three features, then the weights vector would be:
+
+$$
+\mathbf{w} = \begin{bmatrix} w_1 \\ w_2 \\ w_3 \end{bmatrix}
+$$
+
+In practice, these weights are determined during training by minimizing the error between the predictions and the actual target values, adjusting the weights accordingly.
+
+---
+
+### 3. The Feature Matrix \(\mathbf{X}\)
+
+The feature matrix, denoted as **\(\mathbf{X}\)**, contains all input data points for a linear regression model. In this matrix:
+- Each row represents a single data point (observation).
+- Each column represents a feature (variable) of that data point.
+
+If there are \(n\) data points and \(p\) features, the feature matrix \(\mathbf{X}\) is of size \(n \times p\) and has the following structure:
+
+$$
+\mathbf{X} = \begin{bmatrix} 
+x_{11} & x_{12} & \cdots & x_{1p} \\
+x_{21} & x_{22} & \cdots & x_{2p} \\
+\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
+x_{n1} & x_{n2} & \cdots & x_{np} \\
+\end{bmatrix}
+$$
+
+where:
+- \(x_{ij}\) represents the value of the \(j\)-th feature for the \(i\)-th data point.
+
+#### Example of a Feature Matrix
+
+For three data points and two features, the feature matrix would look like this:
+
+$$
+\mathbf{X} = \begin{bmatrix} 
+x_{11} & x_{12} \\ 
+x_{21} & x_{22} \\ 
+x_{31} & x_{32} \\
+\end{bmatrix}
+$$
+
+In this example:
+- The first row \([x_{11}, x_{12}]\) represents the features for the first data point.
+- The second row \([x_{21}, x_{22}]\) represents the features for the second data point.
+- The third row \([x_{31}, x_{32}]\) represents the features for the third data point.
+
+During the linear regression calculation, each row of **\(\mathbf{X}\)** is multiplied by the weights vector **\(\mathbf{w}\)** to generate a prediction for that specific data point.
+
+
+In linear algebra, a **singularity** typically refers to a **singular matrix**—a matrix that does not have an inverse. Here’s what that means:
+
+1. **Singular Matrix**:
+   - A matrix \( \mathbf{A} \) is singular if its **determinant** is zero: \( \det(\mathbf{A}) = 0 \).
+   - A singular matrix cannot be inverted, which implies that there is no matrix \( \mathbf{A}^{-1} \) such that \( \mathbf{A} \mathbf{A}^{-1} = \mathbf{I} \) (where \( \mathbf{I} \) is the identity matrix).
+
+2. **Implications of Singularity**:
+   - **Linearly Dependent Rows or Columns**: A matrix is singular if its rows or columns are linearly dependent, meaning that at least one row or column can be written as a linear combination of the others.
+   - **No Unique Solutions**: When using a singular matrix in a system of linear equations \( \mathbf{A}\mathbf{x} = \mathbf{b} \), the system either has **no solutions** or **infinitely many solutions**, but never a unique solution.
+   - **Non-Invertible Transformations**: In transformations represented by matrices, a singular matrix corresponds to a transformation that squashes some or all of the space, meaning the transformation is not fully reversible.
+
+3. **Geometric Interpretation**:
+   - A singular matrix, when representing a transformation in vector space, will map some vectors onto lower-dimensional space (e.g., a 2D plane in 3D space), causing a loss of dimensionality. This often manifests as "flattening" or "collapsing" parts of the space onto each other.
+
+In summary, in linear algebra, singularity indicates a loss of invertibility due to linearly dependent vectors, resulting in a matrix that cannot map uniquely back to its original space.
+